All about Persian kilims (translation of the book “Persian kilims”)

PERSIAN KILS

Hull, Alastair: Persian Kilims, Yassavoli Publications, Tehran, 1999.

Edited, added and translated by Aleš Krhin

“When someone beats a rug,
the blows are not against the rug,
but against the dust in it.”
Jalal ad-Din Rumi

Awareness of space and time is first and foremost awareness of the image of the world, once mythological, now astrophysical, that is, awareness of the image of the universe or cosmic awareness: this is awareness of the spatial and temporal smallness of both the individual and the entire living world and the Earth itself within the sidereal boundaries of the universe, and at the same time the knowledge that the individual is part of the same universe, which is why every smallest thing in the world then acquires its own special semantic magnitude.

Gregor Strnisa

Knowledge of art history is necessary for the ethnographer because art is one of the most illustrative objects of folk culture. Knowledge must extend both to historical material and – and this is especially true – to the development and laws of form, to the fundamental artistic styles and their psychological foundations.

Rajko Lozar

Carpet ( farsh, ghali – Persian – to spread out) ) is an essential part of Persian art and culture. It is the indigenous, ancient language of the people to whom it belongs, with whom communication takes place through time and space, messages are expressed through various compositional structures, with colors and with the characters in them. For thousands of years, carpets have been faithful, tried and indispensable companions of the Persian nomadic people.

INTRODUCTION

The booklet you are reading now deals with woven carpets – kilims, especially those from the region of Iran. And what is a kilim? The word kilim refers to a carpet that does not have knots, it is only woven. In Iran they use the word gilim, in Afghanistan gelim, kilim in Ukraine, Turkey, Serbia, palas in the Caucasus, bsath in Syria and Lebanon, chilim in Romania, Bosnia… Until recently, collectors and dealers of knotted carpets (rugs) paid very little attention to kilims compared to oriental knotted carpets. Most books on carpets devoted barely a word to kilims, and they were treated as inferior (compared to carpets), simple products. In the last two decades, however, interest in kilims has increased considerably. Nowadays, kilims are the pride of many people around the world, who are enthusiastic about their useful, decorative and also collectible value.

ORIGIN AND USE OF KILIMS

The technique of weaving, the simple insertion of wool, hair and plant fibers, developed from the basic needs of people in the past for clothing, shelter, storage, floor coverings, mattresses… Numerous historical sources can be found that describe the importance of weaving. The Iliad and the works of other later classical authors mention weaving as an established and developing craft of the time. Egyptian tomb paintings show women weaving clothes, and the Bible describes weavers and their tools. The domestication and selective breeding of sheep, goats, horses and camels provided quick access to the raw materials needed for weaving, and dyes were also of plant and animal origin. In antiquity, the production of first-class woolen yarn and dyes was widespread and highly developed. Fleece [1] from the Caucasus and raw materials for dyes from India and North Africa were traded throughout the Mediterranean and Asia, and the manufactured kilims were also an important product for sale and exchange. Undoubtedly, the kilim has been an important decorative, utilitarian, and portable furnishing item for people in the Middle East and throughout Asia for centuries.

Kilims, along with jewelry, clothing, tent and hunting equipment, helped to form the identity of villagers and nomads. Kilims were made to cover the floors and walls of tents, houses and mosques, and were used to cover the backs of horses, camels… They were mostly intended for family or personal use, although some towns and villages in Persia and Anatolia became known for making kilims for sale as early as the 17th and 18th centuries. Kilims, knotted carpets, precious metals, jewelry and animals formed family assets, which could be exchanged for grain in times of scarcity or sold for money.

Kilims also played an important role in the family as a means of marriage payment or dowry. Marriage represented much more than just the union of husband and wife. A girl who was found a future husband at a tender age became the connecting link in the alliance of two families. The connection between two families was confirmed in practice by the gift of carpets, jewelry and other goods. The dowry could also include animals, grazing land and water sources. A young girl, learning from her mother and other family members, soon began to make her own kilims and other products. Each product represented the family tradition and folklore of her people. The status of the family was closely linked to the quality and quantity of the bride’s dowry. Therefore, kilims were made with great effort and creativity, although they were not intended for sale in the bazaar.

Parsons lists the dowry of two northern Afghan families: 1 x Pardeh (a woolen curtain separating the male and female parts of the tent), 1x Jaloor Paidar (a hanging tent door, can be woven or knotted), 3x Jaloor / Tobrehs (large bags), 2x Juvals (the largest tent or camel bags), 2x Namek Donneh (salt bags), 2 pairs of Kolaj Čerge (bags for tent wings), 1x large kilim or knotted rug (carpet), two small kilims, 3x Parpak (tent embroidery).

These items were used for covering the floor, mattresses for sleeping or sitting, storage bags, for covers and also for social purposes. Wealth was clearly visible, and the prized wedding kilims were hung in prominent places. Due to the simple, pre-industrial way of life, nomads and villagers produced a large number of traditional kilims, which differ in design depending on the place of origin and the community of people who lived there. Patterns of the way of working that was characteristic of a particular community (tribe) were passed down through generations. However, in the early twentieth century, pressures began to be exerted on the nomads by individual countries, in the desire to stabilize them in one place and to have greater control over them. Nomads began to trade, copying designs that could be sold better, and some products, such as the large carrying bag, were no longer produced. Intertribal marriages became more common, and quite different cultures began to mix, which caused confusion in the heritage of traditional art tied to a particular group of people. These changes, the fusion between different cultures of tribes and clans that had previously been out of contact, were followed by the creation of unusual, interesting kilims that began appearing on the market thirty years ago.

The villages where kilims are made are inhabited by descendants of nomads who have settled down and continue the tradition of weaving for domestic use and sale. In Turkey, it is possible to determine the area of ​​a group of villages or even an individual village from which a particular kilim originates. In the case of nomadic groups, this is a larger area of ​​origin, as they migrate throughout the year for the sake of their livestock. In Iran, it is more difficult to determine the origin, as thousands of people from different ethnic groups were forcibly relocated from one end of the country to another, a very distant end. The last such major migration was in 1834, and it is not difficult to imagine the confusion that arose within the tribal arrangements. The result is visible in the Persian kilims from the area of ​​Garmsar, where there is a great diversity in design and color, even though they are from the same area.

Despite social and political changes, the production of kilims continues, although the traditional way of life is constantly changing. People are moving to cities, and kilim production is largely aimed at selling on the Western European and American markets. As a result, fewer and fewer kilims are made in the traditional, uncompromising way, and only in more remote areas can you find kilims that are woven and dyed traditionally. However, it is true that recently, due to the increased interest in traditional kilims, which have old, almost forgotten motifs and symbols and are also dyed with natural dyes, their production has increased.

It is clear that the reasons for making kilims have changed considerably in recent decades. Previously, they were almost exclusively for everyday, practical use, but later the purpose of making them became more commercial. Then, when we see a larger number of kilims, old and new, from different regions, we can begin to appreciate and admire those that are original and not part of mass production. These are truly authentic products, these are kilims that have preserved their true ethnic identity, made without compromise, with a skill that radiates the love and heritage with which they were made.

STRUCTURE AND DYES

Wool and animal hair, water for soaking the sheared wool, plants and fruits for dyes, wood for the loom frame, in short, everything people needed to make kilims was within reach within the boundaries of their community, regardless of whether they were nomads or villagers. Kilims from different parts of Iran vary in color and texture, which can also be traced back to specific local sources of the basic, unprocessed materials.

Weaving is a skill that goes back a long way in history. Blankets and mats were woven from reeds and other plants as early as the Paleolithic, and wool began to be used with the domestication of sheep and goats around 8000 BC. In the area of ​​Central Asia, yarn made from sheep wool was most widespread. Three types of sheep were distinguished: fat-tailed, long-tailed and fat-rumped. The fat-tailed sheep is widespread throughout Asia, and its tail alone can weigh up to 12 kilograms. Its drooping tail helps it withstand the heat in the dry season, and it is also a delicacy for shepherds. The quality of the wool of all sheep depends most on the climate and grazing. The wool of fat-tailed sheep is valued for its strong, coarse and long fibers, which give it a shiny sheen and also dye excellently. Due to the cold, dry climate, sheep high in the mountains of Asia have much higher quality fleece than those in the hot lowlands.

Camels, goats, and horses are also sources of yarn. Goat hair is sheared close to the skin beneath the outer layer and is used for its strength and luster. Ropes for attaching saddles and large bags to donkeys or mules are made from goat hair, and in Central Asia, kilims are also made with a combination of sheep wool. The longer sides of the edges of kilims are also often made of goat hair, and the Baluchi use it to sew two smaller pieces of kilim into one.

A Persian proverb says that the camel eats useless plants, carries a heavy load, and does no harm to anyone, and one might add that its hair is as fine as silk. It is even a better insulator than sheep’s wool, which is to be expected, given the heat it carries. Camels have their hair sheared from their necks, throats, and jaws. The hair is useful for making entire kilims, which are especially interesting if the hair is not dyed.

Horsehair from the mane and tail is often sewn as an ornament on bags, and like goathair, it provides strength to the outer parts of the kilim, which are most susceptible to damage. Cotton has long been used in the making of kilims by some groups of people, and more recently it has often been used to emphasize design and patterns. Unlike white wool, the color of cotton does not darken with age. Very fine Kurdish kilims from Sanandaj, a city in northwestern Iran, are made with a cotton warp, as very fine wool would be less durable.

Silk was rarely woven into kilims, only the fine, over two hundred year old Savafid kilims, which also contained silk, were made for the Persian court. The Turkmen peoples still use silk threads to decorate bags today.

WOOL PROCESSING

HAIR CUTTING AND WASHING

The wool is sheared once a year, in spring or early summer. The exception is the lambs in eastern Anatolia around Lake Van, where they are sheared in autumn to obtain short, soft wool. If possible, the wool is washed for the first time before shearing, the animals being taken across a river or larger stream to remove surface dirt. The wool is sheared with hand shears, then soaked in water, dried and washed again. Soft water is best for washing the wool. The washing process is repeated until the wool is truly clean. Tolmuns and other water sources are jealously guarded by the family for generations, and the right to use them is often granted as an important part of the dowry. In southern Iran, the Qashqai wash the wool in boiling water with bicarbonate of soda to remove grease, and in the Caucasus, the wool is placed on a stone and lightly beaten with a thin wooden stick. In the barren desert regions of Baluchistan, eastern Iran, and western Afghanistan, the wool is simply shaken out and exposed to the sun. In all cases, sun-drying, regardless of the method of washing, is the final step in all preparations of fleece for yarn.

RIBING

The cleaned wool or cotton is combed or straightened by pulling the fibers through a needle and pulling it through a small hole hollowed out in a piece of wood, or it can be pulled by hand alone. In the Middle East and Asia, an unusual technique has been developed for separating the remains of wood particles from the cotton. A string-like instrument is held over the fibers and strummed. The vibrations produced cause the fibers to relax.

SPINNING

For the nomadic Qashqai, spinning is generally a woman’s job, but it is a very time-consuming task. Therefore, during the spinning season, men and women, young and old, hold small spinning devices in their hands while going about their daily chores, whether they are looking after sheep, talking animatedly, looking after children… The dexterity of their hands, which rhythmically turn simple spindles, causes the wool fibers to stick together and wind into thread.

They can use simple flat rods, stone weights, or various spindles for spinning. The spindle is an upright wooden or metal holder with a ring-shaped weight on top. From a loosely twisted thread that is wound around the lower part of the left arm, the fibers are straightened with the right hand and wound around the spindle, then lifted with the left hand and let hang. The spindle is lightly spun, and due to the weight of the ring, it continues to spin for a while until it touches the ground. The spinning spindle winds the wool fibers into a strong thread. The thread can be wound clockwise or counterclockwise, depending on which way the spindle is turned. A warp thread, which combines several individual threads, is much stronger. The process of manually spinning the spindle gives the finished product, the kilim, a special charm. Hand-spun wool gives a shine that machine-processed wool does not have.

COLORS

The colors and the way they are patterned are what give kilims their abstract beauty. In all pre-industrial societies, the art of dyeing threads was a developed activity and a carefully guarded secret. Some areas and peoples were famous for the ingredients needed for the colors or for the colors themselves. The Phoenicians were famous producers of scarlet dye, and in the Indus basin they were famous for obtaining red and blue indigo dyes. Although we know exactly what ingredients they used, the process of making them is still unknown to this day. Family and individual secrets of the art of dyeing were kept until the end of their days.

All natural and artificial dyes, with the exception of indigo, some lichens, and bark, require a mordant (lye) to fix the dye to the thread. Different fixatives cause the same dye to appear in different shades. In the past, fixatives were made from various mixtures of ashes, roots, urine, and fruits. Today, caustic soda, slaked lime, salt, and salts of chromium, iron, and bauxite are used.

Until the mid-nineteenth century, people were only familiar with dyes of animal, vegetable and mineral origin. In cities and villages, people took the thread to people who were engaged in dyeing or bought already dyed threads. Thus, all kilims made before 1850 were dyed with natural dyes. Nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples often had access to the raw materials needed to make dyes. Women collected herbs, roots and flowers, which were then used to make dyes according to old recipes. The nomadic way of life did not allow for carrying large quantities of dyed wool, which is why in some older kilims we can see different shades of one color in an individual kilim. The Baluchis, who live in the desert regions of Iran, cannot obtain the raw materials needed for dyes in their area, nor do they have the opportunity to purchase them. Because of this, they have a sophisticated sense of the natural color of wool and its use. For kilims, they use camel hair, the color of which can be white, light yellow or dark brown. They also use brownish sheep wool and black and gray goat hair for combinations (Nassiri, 2002: 9).

One of the oldest natural dyes is blue, obtained from the leaves of the indigo plant, a shrub that has been mentioned as a useful plant since 3000 BC. Indigo originates from South Asia and was traded across Asia in large quantities in powder form. The crushed leaves or powder were usually soaked overnight to obtain a colorless reactant. The thread was then soaked for a while, but when it was pulled out, it turned blue in contact with the air due to a reaction with oxygen. The longer the thread was soaked, the darker the blue became. This resulted in shades of blue from sky blue to very dark blue. Indigo blue is characterized by its purity and durability, it is resistant to sunlight and does not wash out with water.

The root of the marigold is often used to produce red dye, and it is said that dye was obtained from it in the Indus Valley 4,500 years ago. The marigold is a wild perennial plant and its roots grow deep into the ground. Before the roots are ground into powder, they are also peeled. The intensity of the red color depends on the age of the plant. A three-year-old plant gives a reddish color, and a seven-year-old plant gives a strong scarlet color. The final color also depends on the fixatives, which must contain alkali (lye) and certain mineral salts. Bauxite gives the color an orange-red hue, and iron gives a whole range of shades from purple to yellow.

A very large spectrum of natural colors can also be obtained from flowers, fruits, vegetables, insects, and even soil. The following list confirms the ingenuity of people involved in extracting natural sources for colors.

RED – burdock root, poppy, cherry, orange peel, chicory bark, rose roots, rhubarb, apricots, tulip petals, various insects

BLUE – indigo leaves, eggplant epidermis

YELLOW – yarrow flowers, orange and lemon peel, onion skin, saffron, turmeric, yellow sedge flowers, apricot, apple, willow and wild pistachio leaves

ORANGE – grass roots, plum tree bark

GREEN – olive and walnut leaves, sweet violet, combination of indigo and yellow

BROWN AND BLACK – tea, tobacco, volcanic ash, iron oxide, wild olive leaves or walnut bark combined with iron sulfate

All of the natural colors listed are very durable, with the exception of yellow, but it is true that they begin to fade after about fifty years. The good thing about this is that a kilim dyed with natural dyes will acquire beautiful soft tones of color.

The British WHPerkin was the man who, in 1850, succeeded in using his chemical knowledge to obtain an artificial dye, thus causing a real revolution. The difficult and relatively expensive extraction of natural dyes was replaced by a chemical process. This gave kilim makers a choice of cheaper dyes and easier access to a full range of colors. Yellow and orange, which were once very difficult to obtain, became accessible to everyone. The use of chemical dyes led to the rapid development and growth of kilim production.

After the discovery of chemical dyes, many manufacturers began to overdo the use of dyes, which consequently did not ensure the true color harmony of kilims. Until recently, some artificial dyes such as aniline corroded wool and did not withstand washing with detergents. However, in the last thirty years, dyes with the addition of chromium have been developed, which are visually indistinguishable from natural ones. Ironically, it was in the last thirty years that collectors and dealers in the West began to achieve success in lobbying for the use of natural dyes. Artistic workshops of dyeing with natural dyes and the high price of such kilims led to a revival of the old techniques of kilim making.

LOOMS

The looms used in Asia to make kilims are extremely simple devices. Combined with the ancient art of weaving, they are an important part of the process of creating intricate patterns on kilims and rugs. There are two types of looms – the portable horizontal loom, which is used on the floor, and the semi-portable vertical loom, which is typical of villages and towns.

The nomadic Baluchi, Qashqai and some Kurds use portable looms, as their simple structure allows for easy assembly and disassembly. This is essential because of their migrations from winter to summer grazing areas or vice versa. Moving the looms, while the kilim may not yet be made, makes it very difficult to keep the warp threads taut, and as a result, the result is visible in the uneven edges. Larger kilims are also made on portable looms by making two smaller pieces, which are then sewn together lengthwise. When making a tent skirt, several narrow pieces are sewn together widthwise.

Floor-mounted portable looms consist of two horizontal wooden bars (weaving thread), into which the warp threads are stuck and tensioned. There is a gap between the bars and each has two pegs driven into the ground on the inside so that the threads can be tightly tensioned. The tension of the thread is adjusted with additional pegs or a rope. A wooden tripod-shaped frame is placed above the loom and is connected to the shuttle (a device on the loom for moving the warp threads up and down). The cross threads are tied to the shuttle and when it is moved up, a space is created between the warp threads. The weaver usually sits on the finished part of the kilim and moves the tripod forward.

In towns and villages, vertical looms are used, producing everything from small prayer rugs to large rugs measuring over 3 meters. The weaving threads are placed in slots carved into vertical wooden posts. The tension of the warp threads is regulated by wedges of some kind. The balls of thread hang over the front of the loom within reach of the weaver, who usually sits on a raised stool.

The number of warp threads stretched on the loom determines the width of the finished kilim, while the length depends on the looms used. In vertical looms, the length is unlimited. The structure of the fabric depends on the thickness of the warp threads and their distance from each other, as well as on the type of thread and the way it is inserted between the warp threads. Some kilims in central Anatolia are loosely woven, especially bedspreads, cotton and wool kilims from Senneh in Iran are very fine, densely woven, and the Baluchi carry bags are woven so tightly that even a needle is difficult to insert.

Once the looms are set up in the house, tent or outdoors, the work can begin. The tradition of making kilims has usually been the domain of women and girls, except in larger cities where kilim production is already an industry. There is often a male workforce. When girls reach the age of seven, they begin to help their mothers with the looms. Until recently, girls were betrothed at the age of five or six and by the time they were married, they had already made three or four kilims themselves, which became part of their dowry. However, not all women were kilim makers, and as with all other creative crafts, some had greater talent and mastery than others. The reputation of some exceptionally skilled, usually older women, often reached beyond the borders of their people’s territory, and after their death they became legendary. Family patterns, as well as individual designs for kilims, are passed down from generation to generation. A young girl may be more fond of a particular pattern or color, so over time traditional patterns develop and slowly change.

TOOLS

Simple, home-made tools such as a comb and a slat are made of wood or metal, and are used to pin and push the thread or knots onto the base threads. The comb has only a few teeth, usually less than five, and may be decorated with symbols. The Baloch use combs with very long teeth, and the handle is used to push the thread.

WEAVING METHODS

A special feature of kilim making is that individual sections of the same color are completed before the maker moves on to other sections. In knotted carpets, knots are made in a continuous sequence in a straight line, using threads of different colors. The kilim maker will work with only one color of thread for a while, then move on to the other end with a different color of thread.

Nomads did not carry large quantities of wool and therefore used whatever color and texture of wool they had on hand at the place where they settled. This resulted in variations in the individual color and texture of the wool on a single kilim. The result was a kilim with different shades of the same colors.

9. RECOGNIZING TYPES OF KILIMS

9.1. SHAPES, PATTERNS, TYPES

The variety of colors and compositions in kilims is enormous, from simple patterns embroidered with undyed wool to abstract, colorful geometric shapes and stylized figures. Nevertheless, connoisseurs can determine the origin of a kilim by the group of people, region, or city where it was made. However, the exact origin of many old kilims remains a mystery and a subject of heated debate among kilim collectors and dealers.

This chapter deals with the interpretation of ancient symbols and motifs on kilims, as well as some special products such as prayer rugs, nomadic bags and oblong kilims, which can also be purchased in Western markets. It also contains a general explanation of all the main types of kilims from the Anatolian region eastwards through Iran to Afghanistan. It describes the colours, patterns and materials used in the past and carried over to the present day.

9.2. MOTIVES AND SYMBOLS

The opening words of the Quran are: There is no god but God (Allah). In Islam, everything is given by God and everything represents Him. Symbolism in Islamic art can be subjective and also open to interpretation. Undoubtedly, many of the symbols used in kilims pre-date Islam, originating from the times before the Islamization of Central Asia, from the times of the practices of animism and shamanism of pastoral nomads.

The Islamic faith was not in favor of ancient depictions in any art or product. Islam taught that only the hand of God could create a living being, and thus all forms of ancient animist beliefs were suppressed. According to the Quran, figurative art was not forbidden, only idolatry was forbidden. Thus, the line between permissible and impermissible images was rather blurred.

Weavers avoided depicting the living world, but they preserved pre-Islamic symbols that had been used for generations and passed down by word of mouth. These symbols survived turbulent periods of disfavor and developed their own language of communication. There is no depiction of deity in Islam, either in pictures or in the written word. Some symbolic depictions of people and animals are permitted, but they are not to be walked over, which is certainly difficult to do with carpets.

Many kilim makers are closely connected to their natural environment and their families, and find it easy to break the religious taboo of depicting the living world. Kilims are decorative and functional masterpieces, earning them a special place in the definition of Islamic art.

The design and motifs of a kilim help us determine its age and origin, and the different weaving techniques used often determine the motifs of the rug. Over time, makers have developed a combination of different weaving techniques to create more complex and elaborate kilims. In addition to religion, there are two other important factors for choosing and using a design. These are the weaving technique, which allows for more abstract patterns, and the natural environment of the maker, from which he will draw motifs to depict lakes, rivers, flowers, stars, trees, domestic animals (sheep, goats, camels), and wild animals (snakes, spiders, scorpions). Motifs from the home are also welcome, such as a samovar (for making tea), a comb, a cauldron, a lamp, or even a car, bicycle, helicopter (fortunately, however, rarely).

Kilims and knotted carpets share many design elements, although they are completely different in their production techniques. The Anatolian motif of the ‘elibelinde’ (open palm) is often found on kilims and knotted carpets, as are the ‘gol’ (lake) and ‘gul’ (flower). It is not entirely clear whether these motifs were first used on kilims or knotted carpets. Some motifs, such as the leaf and flower, are known to have been first depicted on knotted carpets and later on kilims.

Over time, some depictions of animals and people have been transformed into stylized patterns. Western interpretations of stylized motifs, with their tendency to accurately understand the ancient carpet makers, are often misguided. Westerners should avoid romanticizing the concept of ethnic symbolism and the influence of religion. The whole thing is further complicated by the different languages ​​and ethnic origins of the peoples of Anatolia, Persia, and Central Asia. Over the years, many of the original understandings of motifs have changed or fallen into oblivion, and different interpretations of the same symbols have emerged due to certain local circumstances and misunderstandings. As a result, the same or similar motifs have different names in different areas.

Another problem is that the Western eye sees and interprets all geometric designs, figures on kilims and rugs as stylizations of the original forms of depiction. The fact is that many patterns of geometric shapes were given names only for ease of recognition. The names naturally became part of the language of weavers and were later misinterpreted as designators of the original motif. As an example, we can use the motif characteristic of Turkmen kilims. ‘Tree’ is a suitable geometric pattern that meets all the requirements for making a kilim. It has short slits and a stepped toothed design. It does not represent a tree, but it is somewhat similar and therefore suitable for designation with the word tree.

A pattern or design may have a different name or interpretation in different regions. The narrow strip that separates the central part of the kilim from the outer edges is usually called a ‘ladder’. The Turkmen call this part ‘camel’s teeth’. The boteh pattern, which is often used, also has several interpretations of what it is supposed to represent: a hook, a curl, a peacock, a bird’s head, the universe… Some interpret the hand motif as the maker’s signature, others as the five pillars of Islam, the hand of Fatima…

One of the more well-known motifs on kilims and knotted rugs is the ‘tree of life’. It has many names and interpretations, such as a water source in desert areas, a family tree, where the trunk represents the father and the branches represent the children. The motif is also symbolized as an evil eye talisman or ‘nazarlik’. It is said to help ward off evil or reduce the negative energies of other motifs on the kilim, such as the scorpion or spider.

Many ancient motifs have disappeared from kilims in the last thirty years or have been altered because the makers were unaware of the origin of the design. Modern weavers often get their design ideas from paintings of old carpets, which they then rework for the Western market. In this process, the original motifs will be adapted to the order for a specific size or weaving method. Thus, the development of ancient designs continues into modern times.

9.3. SPECIAL SHAPES

Prayer rugs

A devout Muslim must wash his face, hands and feet, find a suitable place, and dedicate himself to prayer five times a day. The prayer rug with its characteristic ‘mihrab’ composition is ideal because it is small, portable and not difficult to keep the front clean. It should be said that any rug or kilim can be used for prayer, as long as it is clean. The pattern of the mihrab also has various interpretations. Its origin can also be traced to the wall arches in mosques that face Mecca. In mosques, prayer rugs are sometimes hung on the doors as decoration. Prayer rugs can be found in the areas of Anatolia, Kurdistan, Khorasan and western Afghanistan. These kilims are an important part of the dowry, and are often donated to local mosques.

Soffrai and Rukorsi

These are special-shaped kilims made by the Baloch and Kurds. In Persian, the word sofrai means a small rug. They are usually oblong or square in shape, about 1.5 meters in size. They are used as a kind of tablecloth. The Baloch use longer sofrais to cover parts that are not covered by knotted rugs in larger rooms. Rukorsi kilims are intended to cover bread and charcoal pots, and in winter they come in handy for covering felt for bedding. Both types of kilims are not difficult to identify, as they have characteristic ‘zig – zag’ motifs that intertwine the central part of the kilim with the outer part. The edges are made in the soumak weaving technique or are quilted.

Bags

Bags, like kilims, are intended for everyday use, but they have quite different practical purposes. Nomads and settled villagers have no furniture except for some low chairs and wooden boxes or chests. Thus, bags are very useful for storing things and transporting them. Double bags called khurjin in Persian or heybe in Turkish are tied over the shoulder and used to carry vegetables, fruit or other food. Larger bags, about one and a half meters long, are tied over the back of a camel or donkey, and they contain clothes and bedding. Namak doneh is a bag for storing salt and has an elongated narrow opening at the top for better protection against moisture.

10. PERSIA AND ITS PEOPLE

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, all carpets from the ‘orient’ were called Turkish carpets. Today, various carpets are just as often mislabeled as Persian. There should be no major problems in identifying a genuine Persian kilim, as they are characterized by strong colors and abstract patterns, which differ from fine carpets made in workshops in urban centers, which are characterized by floral patterns and other depictions.

The origins of the Persian people can be traced back to the great Asian empires. Persia was ruled by the Achaemenids, Greeks, Sassanid kings, Arabs, Mongols, Turkmens, and finally the local Safavid dynasties. As a result, Iran today is inhabited by many different peoples. Over the centuries, the distribution of these immigrants from areas such as Central Asia and the Caucasus changed, especially under the Persian monarchs of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Entire groups of people were forcibly moved from one area to the very other, usually to a remote border area, for political and military reasons. The resulting confusion in the intertwining of peoples of different cultures and the crossing of borders by nomadic peoples until recently are the reason for the sometimes difficult to determine origin of kilims.

Most of the fine Persian kilims still available today were made in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by Kurdish and Turkmen peoples, before the repressive regime of Reza Shah. The kilims were made for everyday domestic use in the villages or camps of nomadic peoples. The highest quality kilims with floral patterns were made in Senna, the capital of Kurdistan.

In 1925, Pahlavi established his regime, whose priority was to reduce the power and political influence of the Persian tribal peoples, who were a minority compared to the urban population. Tribal leaders were imprisoned, weapons confiscated, and nomadic groups were relocated to remote areas where they were under greater control. After the fall of Reza Shah’s regime in 1941, tribally organized peoples regained their power for fifteen years. After 1956 and until today, Iranian governments have continued with a policy of controlling and weakening the power of nomadic peoples and tribally organized societies in the desire for a more homogeneous Iranian society. All of this contributed to the decline of traditional kilim production.

Senna

Sanandaj, formerly Senna, is the capital of Kurdistan. Finely woven kilims from the eighteenth, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are named after it. The fine patterns with flower motifs originate from the Safavid period (1499–1722), in which Persian art reached its peak. The masterpieces of the master designers and weavers of this period were so sophisticated that to this day only a few designers have managed to recreate the original Safavid motifs. Senna kilims are smaller and finely crafted with a special weaving technique. The main threads are cotton, and the cross threads are wool. The motifs are often emphasized with silk or metallic thread (Nassiri, 2002: 2). The design may consist of a large number of flower motifs, boteh patterns, flowing wine, bees and a central diamond cluster of small flowers known as the Herati design. Iran is not famous for making prayer rugs, with the exception of the famous prayer rugs from Senna, which have a special shape of mihrab (prayer niche in a mosque). The central part of the Senna rugs is bordered with motifs of leaves, stems and other parts of flowers. The colors are mostly red, blue and white.

Bijar

These kilims are woven in the villages and nomadic settlements of Kurdistan and are usually simple copies of the Senna motifs. Like the Senna, they use cotton and wool, the colors are bright, and small figures of people and animals are typical.

Shahsavan (Ilsavan)

On the northwestern border of Iran with the Caucasus, there is a confederation of major Turkic people groups. Some groups are semi-Samoan, migrating from the Moghan plateaus to summer pastures in the mountains north of Ardabil. The word Shahsavan means “lovers of the Shah”, indicating their former loyalty to the Safavid rulers. These people originate from Central Asia and were formerly Seljuk Turks.

The Ilsavans are known for their ceremonial horse headgear, made in the soumak weaving technique, with patterns of horses, birds and deer. Kilims from this region are similar to those from the South Caucasus, differing only in the coarser material and some details in the patterns. Ilsavan kilims are made of dark, coarse unprocessed wool, which distinguishes them from Caucasian kilims, which use soft, fine and colored wool. Persian influence is visible in the stylized depictions of birds, flowers and people on the kilims.

Zarand

Kilims made in the area between the villages of Saveh, Zarand, and Qazvin in central Iran are collectively called Zarand. They are often the work of the Ilsavan people, who settled in large numbers in the area. Zarand kilims are long, narrow, and sturdy, made of cotton and strong, thick woolen threads. The patterns in the center are stylized and floral with depictions of flowing wine and clovers on the outer edges. The colors are dark blue, cream, and brown. Often the floral motifs are grouped in a diamond shape or in two or three medallions.

Veramin and Garmsar

Kilims from this area, located about 30 kilometers southwest of Tehran, have different origins depending on the group of peoples. The cities of Veramin and Garmsar are located on the trade and migration route connecting east and west central Iran. Peoples such as Arabs, Kurds, Ilsavans, Lors, Qashqai and others settled here, establishing an important area of ​​kilim making. Kilims from Veramin and Garmsar are sturdy, tightly woven, and quite large. The warp and weft threads are mostly made of dark, untreated wool. They use geometric patterns, often strung on diagonals. The colors are mostly bright reds and blues, with unusual greens and yellows on dark backgrounds.

Qashqai

The nomadic Qashqai people of southwestern Iran are well known for their traditional kilims. They came from the north with Turkish groups in the sixteenth century. As a result, the patterns of the Qashqai can be traced back to those of the Caucasus region. They were once famous for their long annual migration from the wintering grounds along the Persian Gulf to the summer pastures in the Zagros Mountains. Since 1925, they have suffered greatly under repressive policies. Thus, most of the better Qashqai kilims were made before the Pahlavi regime.

The Qashqai make kilims when they are not on the journey or at intermediate resting places. There are interesting sudden changes in patterns and colors, as they can carry only small amounts of colored thread with them. They often fold the floor looms when the kilim is not yet finished and leave on their journey. They reassemble them at the next camp and continue weaving, so it is not surprising to see changes in the patterns (Hull, 1999: 31).

Bakhtiari

The Bakhtiari were a nomadic people until recently. They migrated from the plateaus of central western Persia to the Zagros Mountains. Their origins are ancient and obscure. They speak Persian, and their inaccessible, remote homeland has helped preserve their culture. As a result, the kilims are original and have preserved their identity. The weaving techniques are unusual, using a double weave with cotton and wool. The kilims are long and narrow with pure colors, usually yellow, red, blue and orange. The design often consists of patterns of squares, botehs, rhomboids, surrounded by several edges. The outer edges are made in the form of strips in the direction of the transverse threads. Horse blankets are woven in the soumak technique with animal motifs.

Khorasan

This area in northeastern Iran, bordering Afghanistan and Central Asia, is home to the Baluchi, Turkmen and also Kurds. These Kurds were forcibly displaced from their homeland in the Caucasus and Kurdistan in the sixteenth century by the Ottoman Turks. They were settled there to defend the Persian region from the rampaging Uzbeks of Central Asia. The Kurds make large kilims with brocades in dark red and blue, and beautifully decorated bags. It is often difficult to distinguish their masterpieces from the carpets of neighboring peoples. Many Turkmen from the Khorasan region are members of the Tekke and Yomut peoples, who emigrated from what was then Russia in the nineteenth century. Their kilims are recognizable by their dark red color with characteristic stylized flower motifs. They also make large bags and door curtains. The Khorasan region is also home to groups of Baluchi who came here in the eleventh and twelfth centuries before the Turkish invasions. The Baloch people who settled in the border area of ​​Iran with Afghanistan are known as Rukhshani and make kilims that are considered Baloch kilims.

11. CONCLUSION

We have presented you with some basic information and knowledge about Persian kilims and their makers. Nowadays, a large number of kilims are made for the purpose of earning a living. Therefore, it seems interesting to know how kilims that were not intended for sale were once made and what they were used for, how organic dyes were obtained and where they drew inspiration for motifs, characters, symbols. It seems that the final product is the result of both regional, local and family heritage, as well as the natural environment with its specific characteristics and the individual’s interpretation of it, as well as her or his experience of the world and the ability to express herself through art. Since Iran is a place where different cultures and peoples come into contact due to its geographical location and historical circumstances, this is reflected in the great diversity of kilim weaving techniques and the symbols and motifs used.

[1] The word fleece refers to the wool that is sheared from a single sheep.